Research papers & publications

Updated 2026-09-04

The peer-reviewed literature behind GumGauge — why measuring periodontal disease matters (its links to cardiovascular disease, diabetes, Alzheimer's, and more), and how a full-arch measuring device is validated. Grouped by theme; every citation links to its source. The books I've read are on their own page.

GumGauge is investigational. No hardware or clinical performance data exists; session timing, safety, and performance remain unvalidated design targets. The device is not cleared or approved by the FDA, and its premarket pathway remains under review.

Probing accuracy & measurement error

Caron et al. (2025). The relevance of intraoral scanner (IOS) for periodontal diagnosis: A scoping review. Journal of Dentistry. PMID:40398835 ↗
Chen et al. (2023). Automatic recognition of teeth and periodontal bone loss measurement in digital radiographs using deep-learning artificial intelligence. Journal of Dental Sciences. PMID:37404656 ↗
Fitzgerald et al. (2022). Reproducibility of Manual Periodontal Probing Following a Comprehensive Standardization and Calibration Training Program. Journal of Oral Biology (Northborough). PMID:36225716 ↗
Chung et al. (2022). Periodontal probing on digital images compared to clinical measurements in periodontitis patients. Scientific Reports. PMID:35102150 ↗
Al Shayeb et al. (2014). Accuracy and reproducibility of probe forces during simulated periodontal pocket depth measurements. Saudi Dental Journal. PMID:25408596 ↗
Lafzi et al. (2007). Assessment of Intra- and Inter-examiner Reproducibility of Probing Depth Measurements with a Manual Periodontal Probe. Journal of Dental Research, Dental Clinics, Dental Prospects. PMID:23277829 ↗
Grossi et al. (1996). Sources of error for periodontal probing measurements. Journal of Periodontal Research. PMID:8858537 ↗
Hull et al. (1995). An assessment of the validity of a constant force electronic probe in measuring probing depths. Journal of Periodontology. PMID:8537866 ↗

Scanner & 3D-imaging validation methodology

Baresel et al. (2025). Full arch accuracy of intraoral scanners with different acquisition technologies: An in vitro study. Journal of Dentistry. PMID:40120795 ↗
Spagopoulos et al. (2023). In Vitro Trueness and Precision of Intraoral Scanners in a Four-Implant Complete-Arch Model. Dentistry Journal (Basel). PMID:36661564 ↗
Hardan et al. (2023). Effect of scanning strategies on the accuracy of digital intraoral scanners: a meta-analysis of in vitro studies. The Journal of Advanced Prosthodontics. PMID:38205120 ↗
Giuliodori et al. (2023). Intraoral Scans of Full Dental Arches: An In Vitro Measurement Study of the Accuracy of Different Intraoral Scanners. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. PMID:36981684 ↗
Falih et al. (2022). Trueness and Precision of Eight Intraoral Scanners with Different Finishing Line Designs: A Comparative In Vitro Study. European Journal of Dentistry. PMID:36513335 ↗
Mangano et al. (2020). Trueness of 12 intraoral scanners in the full-arch implant impression: a comparative in vitro study. BMC Oral Health. PMID:32962680 ↗
Bilmenoglu et al. (2020). In vitro comparison of trueness of 10 intraoral scanners for implant-supported complete-arch fixed dental prostheses. The Journal of Prosthetic Dentistry. DOI:10.1016/j.prosdent.2019.11.017 ↗
Iturrate et al. (2019). A new method to measure the accuracy of intraoral scanners along the complete dental arch: A pilot study. The Journal of Advanced Prosthodontics. PMID:31897272 ↗

AI in periodontal diagnosis & FDA predicates

Khubrani et al. (2025). Detection of periodontal bone loss and periodontitis from 2D dental radiographs via machine learning and deep learning: systematic review employing APPRAISE-AI and meta-analysis. Dentomaxillofacial Radiology (DMFR), 54(2):89-108. PMID:39656957 ↗
Ferrara et al. (2025). Applications of deep learning in periodontal disease diagnosis and management: a systematic review and critical appraisal. Journal of Medical Artificial Intelligence, 8:23. DOI:10.21037/jmai-24-241 ↗
Kurt-Bayrakdar et al. (2024). Detection of periodontal bone loss patterns and furcation defects from panoramic radiographs using deep learning algorithm: a retrospective study. BMC Oral Health, 24:155. PMID:38297288 ↗
Velmeni, Inc. (2024). Velmeni for Dentists (V4D) — FDA 510(k) K240003 clearance (AI analysis of bitewing, periapical, and panoramic radiographs). FDA 510(k) Summary K240003 (Class II Medical Image Analyzer, 21 CFR 892.2070). www.accessdata.fda.gov ↗
Khan et al. (2023). Celebrating breakthrough in dental diagnostics: FDA approval of an AI model for diagnosis of periodontal diseases: A correspondence. Health Science Reports, 6(9):e1573. PMID:37732105 ↗
Jiang et al. (2022). A two-stage deep learning architecture for radiographic staging of periodontal bone loss. BMC Oral Health, 22:106. PMID:35365122 ↗
Overjet, Inc. (2021). In a Dental Industry First, Overjet's Dental Assist Receives FDA Clearance to Bring AI to the Dental Practice (radiographic bone-level measurement). Overjet / PRNewswire company announcement (FDA 510(k) Class II Medical Image Analyzer, 21 CFR 892.2070). www.overjet.com ↗
Chang et al. (2020). Deep Learning Hybrid Method to Automatically Diagnose Periodontal Bone Loss and Stage Periodontitis. Scientific Reports, 10:7531. DOI:10.1038/s41598-020-64509-z ↗
Krois et al. (2019). Deep Learning for the Radiographic Detection of Periodontal Bone Loss. Scientific Reports, 9:8495. DOI:10.1038/s41598-019-44839-3 ↗

Epidemiology & disease burden

Hu et al. (2025). Global, regional, and national burden of periodontal diseases from 1990 to 2021 and predictions to 2040: an analysis of the global burden of disease study 2021. Frontiers in Oral Health. PMID:40786185 ↗
Tay et al. (2025). Application of the 2018 Periodontal Status Classification to Epidemiological Survey Data (ACES) Framework to Estimate the Periodontitis Prevalence in the United States. Journal of Clinical Periodontology. PMID:39895381 ↗
Jevdjevic et al. (2025). Global, Regional, and Country-Level Economic Impacts of Oral Conditions in 2019. Journal of Dental Research. PMID:39535193 ↗
Pattamatta et al. (2025). The value-for-money of preventing and managing periodontitis: Opportunities and challenges. Periodontology 2000. PMID:38745388 ↗
Hashim et al. (2025). The Global Burden of Periodontal Disease: A Narrative Review on Unveiling Socioeconomic and Health Challenges. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. PMID:40283848 ↗
Wu et al. (2022). Global, regional, and national burden of periodontitis from 1990 to 2019: Results from the Global Burden of Disease study 2019. Journal of Periodontology. PMID:35305266 ↗
Chen et al. (2021). Global, regional, and national burden of severe periodontitis, 1990-2019: An analysis of the Global Burden of Disease Study 2019. Journal of Clinical Periodontology. PMID:34101223 ↗
Eke et al. (2018). Periodontitis in US Adults: National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2009-2014. Journal of the American Dental Association (JADA). PMID:29957185 ↗

Periodontitis & cardiovascular disease

Tran et al. (2025). Periodontal Disease and Atherosclerotic Cardiovascular Disease: A Scientific Statement From the American Heart Association. Circulation (American Heart Association). DOI:10.1161/CIR.0000000000001390 ↗
Kim et al. (2024). Periodontitis and atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease. Molecules and Cells (Mol Cells). PMID:39515611 ↗
Chen et al. (2024). Association between periodontitis and mortality of patients with cardiovascular diseases: A cohort study based on NHANES. Journal of Periodontology. PMID:37469140 ↗
Herrera et al. (2023). Association between periodontal diseases and cardiovascular diseases, diabetes and respiratory diseases: Consensus report of the Joint Workshop by the European Federation of Periodontology (EFP) and the European arm of the World Organization of Family Doctors (WONCA Europe). Journal of Clinical Periodontology. PMID:36935200 ↗
Sanz et al. (2020). Periodontitis and cardiovascular diseases: Consensus report. Journal of Clinical Periodontology (EFP / World Heart Federation joint workshop). PMID:32011025 ↗
Muñoz Aguilera et al. (2020). Periodontitis is associated with hypertension: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Cardiovascular Research (European Society of Cardiology). DOI:10.1093/cvr/cvz201 ↗
Bell et al. (2020). Is periodontitis a risk factor for ischaemic stroke, coronary artery disease and subclinical atherosclerosis? A Mendelian randomization study. Atherosclerosis. PMID:33038664 ↗

Periodontitis & diabetes

Umezaki et al. (2025). The role of periodontal treatment on the reduction of hemoglobinA1c, comparing with existing medication therapy: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Frontiers in Clinical Diabetes and Healthcare. PMID:40070580 ↗
Trullenque-Eriksson et al. (2024). Periodontitis in patients with diabetes and its association with diabetes-related complications. A register-based cohort study. BMJ Open. DOI:10.1136/bmjopen-2024-087557 ↗
Borgnakke (2023). Current scientific evidence for why periodontitis should be included in diabetes management. Frontiers in Clinical Diabetes and Healthcare. DOI:10.3389/fcdhc.2023.1257087 ↗
Simpson et al. (2022). Treatment of periodontitis for glycaemic control in people with diabetes mellitus. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 2022(4):CD004714. PMID:35420698 ↗
Genco et al. (2020). Effects of periodontal disease on glycemic control, complications, and incidence of diabetes mellitus. Periodontology 2000, 83(1):59-65. PMID:32385875 ↗
Graves et al. (2020). The impact of diabetes on periodontal diseases. Periodontology 2000, 82(1):214-224. PMID:31850631 ↗
Sanz et al. (2018). Scientific evidence on the links between periodontal diseases and diabetes: Consensus report and guidelines of the joint workshop on periodontal diseases and diabetes by the International Diabetes Federation and the European Federation of Periodontology. Diabetes Research and Clinical Practice (also co-published in J Clin Periodontol 2018;45(2):138-149, DOI 10.1111/jcpe.12808). PMID:29208508 ↗
D'Aiuto et al. (2018). Systemic effects of periodontitis treatment in patients with type 2 diabetes: a 12 month, single-centre, investigator-masked, randomised trial. The Lancet Diabetes & Endocrinology, 6(12):954-965. PMID:30472992 ↗

Periodontitis & Alzheimer’s / cognition

Arriaga et al. (2026). Association of Periodontal Pathogens and Their Inflammatory Mediators With Alzheimer's Disease Neurodegeneration: A Systematic Review. Cureus. PMID:41890452 ↗
Kim et al. (2025). Periodontitis as a Risk Factor for Dementia: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Journal of Evidence-Based Dental Practice. PMID:40335202 ↗
Arbildo-Vega et al. (2025). Association between periodontal disease and Alzheimer's disease: umbrella review. Frontiers in Dental Medicine. PMID:40703565 ↗
Zhang et al. (2025). Association between periodontal disease and Alzheimer's disease: a scoping review. Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience. DOI:10.3389/fnagi.2025.1588008 ↗
Beydoun et al. (2024). Infection burden, periodontal pathogens, and their interactive association with incident all-cause and Alzheimer's disease dementia in a large national survey. Alzheimer's & Dementia. PMID:39115027 ↗
Plachokova et al. (2024). Periodontitis: A Plausible Modifiable Risk Factor for Neurodegenerative Diseases? A Comprehensive Review. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. PMID:38674088 ↗
Ryder (2020). Porphyromonas gingivalis and Alzheimer disease: Recent findings and potential therapies. Journal of Periodontology. PMID:32533852 ↗
Dominy et al. (2019). Porphyromonas gingivalis in Alzheimer's disease brains: Evidence for disease causation and treatment with small-molecule inhibitors. Science Advances. PMID:30746447 ↗
Sparks Stein et al. (2012). Serum antibodies to periodontal pathogens are a risk factor for Alzheimer's disease. Alzheimer's & Dementia. PMID:22546352 ↗